Indian Philosophy

Indian philosophy is essentially spiritual in nature. The enquiry in the western world was centered around man, and making the society well developed. Indian philosophy on the other hand provided an epistemological perspective.

Indian philosophy being religious in nature has been looked down upon as the western world was concerned with a scientific pursuit of the true nature of everything. However, it emphasizes the practical realization of truth. See the self (Atma va are drustavyah) is the keynote of all schools of Indian Philosophy.

Vedas and Upanisads

Vedas are known as shrutis or knowledge. Poetic hymns of Vedas matured into philosophical thinking called Upanisaads. Vedas are written in a poetic form, and they are supposed to be eternal and author-less.

Vedic matras were practiced by Brahmanas and Arnyakas. Upanisadas is a recording of intellectual, and philosophical discourse.

A transition from naturalism and anthropomorphic polytheism to transcendent monotheism was noted in the pre-upanisadic philosophy.

Purusa and Rta

“Ekam satya vipra bahudha badanti” - Rig Veda translation: “The one is real, the wise declare many”

Purusa is the universal consciousness. It is supposed to be perfect, and omnipresent. It is the custodian of Rta, the cosmic moral order, the binding soul of the universe (pure consciousness). This emphasis on the universal consciousness is called Monistic Idealism.

Purusa is interpreted differently in different vedas, like Ukta in Rig Veda, Agni in Yajur Veda and Mahavrta in Sam Veda.

Atman and Brahman

Atman is the the spiritual life principle of the universe, centered around an individual. That is, its essentially the human soul. Brahman on the other hand, is the universal principle. It has been interpreted differently in different upanisads.

These concepts were introduced in the Chhandogya Upanisad. There were said to be three modes of being for a human being:

Walking Sleep - Bodily self
Dreaming Sleep - Empirical Self
Dreamless Sleep - Absolute/Metaphysical self

They believed one who is dreaming to be free, and there being no self to feel. The self appears to be unconscious, and is said to be a desire-less state. Body is not the self, it rather exists for the self.

“Self can be known to no object” - Brhadarnyaka Upanisad

Mandukya Upanisad

Vishayanubhuti: Self in walking state enjoys the world
Taijhasa: One imagines themselves in dreaming state
Prajña: Transcendental consciousness, above the dichotomy of dreams and desires
Turya: Foundation of all knowledge, can be realized directly or indirectly

Katha Upanisad

Uses the chariot analogy to convey purpose of each body.

Chariot Part	Actual Part
Road	Objects
Chariot	Body
Horses	Senses
Reins	Mind
Charioteer	Intellect
Enjoyer	Ego
Lord sitting on the Chariot	Atman

Taitreya Upanisad - Koshas

Brahman is the source of all evolution. Self is the Sarvaphutama, the self-consciousness.

Annamaya - Matter
Pranamaya - Life
Manomaya - Consciousness
Vignanamaya - Self-consciousness, ability to understand what/why we do stuff
Antaryamin - Self

Brahman is non-dual and transcendent. When evolving, the lower state of brahman is not lost, but is instead transformed.

Orthodox philosophical systems accept the authority of Vedas and Upanisads. Examples include Sankhya, Mimanasa and Nyaya-Vaiseshuika. Heterodox question the authority, and include Charvaka (Materialism), Buddhism and Jainism.

Charvaka - Indian Materialism

This school of thought is against excessive monkdom. It was felt that the idealism in Upanisads was unsuited to the common-folk of the society, due to ritualism and societal exploitation. Brhaspati was a heretical teacher, and the founder of Indian materialism.

Charu Vak means eat, drink and merry. Loakatya is a low man, an arch heretic. Perception is accepted by the Charvakas as a source of knowledge. However, Inference and other sources of pramana were not acceptable to them. This is because inference proceeds from the known to unknown, which they didn’t accept.

Criticism of this school of thought arises with the point that perceptual knowledge is often misleading.

Matter creates mind as the liver secretes bile

They believed consciousness to be emergent as a result of bodily activities. They felt the soul to be the living body, and consciousness to be the mere product of matter/material elements. They felt the body to be comprised of earth, fire, water and air. (not ether!)

Criticism arises with the point of self-consciousness, why are humans self-conscious but animals are not?

They do not accept Dharma and Moksa, and only accept Kama and Artha. They did not believe in after life.

Sankhya Philosophy

It is described as being:

pluralistic spiritualism
atheistic realism
uncompromising dualism.

Dualism is when two metaphysical principles are accepted, such as in Descartes’ mind-body dualism. Similarly, sankhya takes prakruti and purusa as the principles. Prakruti is primordial (pradhana), and purusa is inactive but conscious (a witness).

Atheistic realism because it doesn’t talk about God. However, it is still orthodox in nature and accepts upanisads and vedas as the authority.

Pluralistic Spiritualism because Sankhya believes purusa to be existing in many forms and things. Example, multiple human beings are conscious.

Sankhya Theory of Causation

Satkaryavada says that the effect is an explicit manifestation of whatever pre-existing in the cause. Pakrtiparinamavada says that all effects are modifications of parimana or prakruti.

This theory provides 5 arguments for Satkaryavada:

Asadkaranat: If the effect does not pre-exist in cause, then it would be a mere non-entity
Upadanagrahanat: The material cause is invariably connected, like how the pot pre-exists to some extent in clay which the potter brings out
Sarvasambhavabhavat: Everything cannot produce everything, oil comes from oil seeds and not anything else
Saktasya Sakhyakaranat: Actualization of potentiality connected in material cause, recognizing that seeds can produce oil and witnessing its manifestation (like the efficient cause)
Karanaabhavat: Effect is in essence of its material cause, like how specific steps have to be followed for making a pot from clay

Prakruti

There are five main characteristics of prakruti;

Pradhana: The first principle of universe
Avyakta: Imperceptible
Jada: Unconscious and unintelligent
Shakti: Ever active with unlimited power
Rajas: Inherent motion

There are five main arguments for the existence of prakriti.

Prakriti is the source of universe. All individual beings are finite, but the world is infinite. finite cannot cause infinite, hence prakriti must exist.
All worldly things posses certain common characteristics such as feeling pain, pleasure and indifference. This implies they share a common source. (Trigunas: the three common feelings)
All effects arise from activity of the potent cause, which must be inherent in the world.
The effect differs from the cause, and hence the limited effect cannot be its own cause. Effect is explicit and cause is implicit which needs to be inferred.
Unity of universe points to a single point, which is prakriti

Gunanam Samyavastha

There are three constituents of Prakriti; Sattava (pleasure), Rajas (pain, principle of motion) and Tamas (indifference, principle of inertia). Collectively, these three are called as Trigunas.

Although the gunas are constituents of prakriti, they are still subservient to Purusa because prakriti and purusa are intertwined.

The trigunas are inseparable from prakriti. They conflict yet co-operate with each other, and the composition of things is determined by these gunas. These gunas are dynamic, and ever-changing.

Change is either Homogeneous (Swarupa Parimana) or Heterogeneous (Virupa Parimana). Prakriti is ever-changing in nature.

Evolution is creation, its cyclic and not linear. It also is Teleological in nature and not mechanical.

Evolution is possible only if Prakriti and Purusa are together. Prakriti needs purusa to be known (darshanartham), and purusa needs prakriti to be enjoyed (bhoga, kaivalyartham).

This is why Sankhya is atheistic, it believes only in the co-operation of prakriti and purusa with each other.

Purusa

It is the principle and pure consciousness. Purusa is neither the body, nor the senses. It is not a substance which possesses consciousness, it is consciousness itself. Consciousness is not a feature of purusa!

Do note that Sankhya believes in plurality of purusas.

There are several arguments for the existence of Purusa, mentioned below.

Sanghataparthavat: Prakriti evolves to serve purusa’s end, Teleological proof.
Trigunadiviparyat: Trigunas imply the existence of nitalgunya - beyond gunas
Adhisthanant: Purusa is ontological, all knowledge implies the existence of self. It is the base of empirical knowledge.
Bhoktarbhavat: non-intelligent prakriti cannot enjoy the fruits, purusa is needed
Kaivalyartham pravartteh: The desire for liberation from the suffering of the world. Aspiration pre-supposes the aspirant, this proof is mystical and religious in nature.

Yoga

A spiritual union between the individual soul and the universal soul. It is a spiritual effort to attain perfection through control of body, senses and mind through the right discrimination between purusa and prakriti.

Yoga as a philosophical system accepts metaphysics and epistemology of Sankhya.

There are four stages for performing yoga.

Samadhi Pada: nature and aim of concentration
Sadhana Pada: means to realize the end
Bibhuti Pada: super-natural powers attained through yoga
Kaivalya Pada: nature of liberation and transcendental self

Yoga aims to cease modification (Vrtti) through concentration, and to return Purusa to its original perfection.

It is the modification (Vrtti) of Chitta, also known as Antakrana. Chitta appears to be conscious due to reflection of purusa.

Chitta can be modified in the following ways:

Pranama: Right cognition, perception, inference and verbal testimony
Viparyaya: Wrong cognition
Vikalpa: Verbal cognition or imagination
Nidra: Absence of cognition or sleep
Smrti: Memory

Chitta is the reflection of purusa in it, and there are five kinds of sufferings.

Ignorance: avidya
Egoism: amsita
Attachment: raga
Aversion: Dvesa
Abhinivesh: clinging to life and instinctive fear of death

Astanga Yoga is the eight fold path to discipline as explained by Yoga.

Yama: abstention via 5 vows; Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya (not stealing), brahmadharya (celibation), aparigraha (not possessing stuff)
Niyama: external and internal purification
- shaucha
- santosh (contentment)
- tapas (austerity)
- iswarparinidhana (devotion to god)
Asana: Sitting in a comfortable posture for meditation
Pranayama: controlled breathing
Pratyhara: controlled senses
Dharana: Fixing mind on object of meditation
Dhyana: meditation with undisturbed flow of though around the object of meditation
Samadhi: concentration

Buddhism - The Philosophy of Buddha

The light of Asia

Buddhism is called heterodox because it is against Vedic philosophy. Buddha was an ethical teacher and a social reformer than a theoretical philosopher. Buddha was strongly against the sacrificial practices which were being followed in the society.

Life is rooted in pessimism, and is a fight against misery and suffering.

Buddha’s teaching were mainly oral. He didn’t believe in the eternal, rather that everything is momentary. They have been written down in three parts (Tripitaka) called VinayaPitaka, SuttaPitaka and AbhidhamaPitaka.

Four Noble Truths

Duhkha - Suffering

Life is full of misery and pain. Even in wealth, there is the ever present fear of loss ~~.:|:;~~
Duhkha Samudaya / Duhkhasya Karana - Cause of suffering

Everything has a cause, and every event depends upon its cause and conditions. Therefore, there must be a cause of suffering which can be obtained.
Duhkha Nirodha - The cessation of suffering

Once the cause is removed, the effect of suffering can be removed as well. His ideas were similar to Heraclitus, with regards to everything changing.
Duhkha Nirodhagamini Pratipat - Duhkha Nirodhasya Marga i.e. paths leading to the cessation of suffering

An eight-fold path was given by Buddha to cease suffering, called Arya Astanga Marg

Arya Astanga Marg - The Eight Fold path

Right faith (Samyag Drsti)
Right resolve (Sankalpa)
Right speech (Vak)
Right action (Karmanta)
Right living (Ajiya)
Right effort (Vyayama)
Right thought (Smrti)
Right concentration (Samadhi)

Pratityasamutpada - Theory of dependent origination

“Causality is always self-changing or becoming. The essence of a thing, its dharma, is the immanent law of relation.”

This theory suggests that everything is rooted to a singular cause, following from the law of causation. This is inherently related to the second noble truth, Duhkha Samudaya.

From the point of view of relativity, it is called Samsara. However, from the point of view of reality, it is called Nirvana.

Buddha revels that everything is relative, conditional and subject to birth and death, and therefore impermanent. Buddha identifies this as his dharma, it poses the middle path Madhyama Pratipat between the two extremes, reality and nothingness.

Nagarjuna says that Pratityasamutpada leads to cessation of plurality and bliss.

Dharma Chakra - The twelve links

You can start from any end, and move in a cycle to get the cause-effect relations.

Old age and death
Birth or rebirth (Jati)
Will to be born (Bhava)
Clinging to enjoyment (Upadana)
Thirst for sense of enjoyment (Trsna)
Sense - Experiences (Vedana)
Sense-Object contact (Sparsha)
Six sense organs including mind (Sadayatana)
Psycho-Physical organism (Nama rupa)
Initial consciousness of embryo (Vijnana)
Impressions of Cosmic forces (Samskarana)
Ignorance (Avidya)

Ignorance can be destroyed by knowledge. Right knowledge helps in understanding the causal power of each link (Artha Kriya - Karitva).

Since all beings are constituting, liberation is challenging and needs to be systematically worked out. Bhava Nirodha is the cessation of all activities.

Hinayana and Mahayana

Buddhism is a religion without God, karma takes the place of God. Liberation is the state of Arhathood, an ideal saint who obtains personal salvation - Nibbana.

Hinayana considers liberation to be negative in nature. Mahayana on the other hand, considers liberation to be a positive state of bliss, and not a negative cessation of misery.

Bodhisattva

Buddha is considered a God from a religious point of view. His divinity is worshiped, and is believed to have transcended reality by possessing the power of renunciation. An absolute self running through the individual selves.

Bodhisattava is an ideal saint who defers his own salvation in order to work for the salvation of others. He is inspired by the love for all beings and is ready to suffer gladly.

Hinayana - Theory of Momentariness

This theory is called Ksanabhangavada. Everything is momentary with ceaseless flow - Sanghatavada - becoming is real.

The theory of aggregates discusses how the stream of becoming is conceptualized, and is the aggregate of Five Skandhas. (Pancha Skandhas)

The Pancha Skandhas say that the soul is a bundle of:

Rupa - Matter
Vedana - Feeling
Samjana - Perception
Samskara - Dispositions
Vijnana - Consciousness

This theory states that change is universal and liberation is the extinction of all desires and passions.

Sarvam Duhkham - Everything is sorrow
Sarvam Anatma - Everything is devoid of self
Sarvam Ksanikam - Everything is momentary

There are a few western philosophers whose ideas aligned with Buddha’s:

Heraclitus - change is real - “You cannot bathe twice in same river”
David Hume - Bundle theory of self - “I can never catch myself”
William James - “Passing thought itself is the thinker”
Bergson - “Everything is the manifestation of the flow of E’ Lam Vital”